If you’ve ever encountered Korean culture, you’ve likely noticed the intense emphasis on education. From grueling study hours to hyper-competitive university entrance exams, the pursuit of academic excellence seems almost woven into the national DNA. But where did this all-consuming passion come from?
While there are many possible explanations, I want to explore Korea’s deep-rooted emphasis on education by looking at how the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) was formed. Let’s travel back in time to an era of revolution, philosophical debate, and a radical reimagining of governance. This isn’t just a story of rigorous studying—it’s about how historical events shaped a culture’s identity and values.
The Collapse of Goryeo: Crisis and Corruption
Before Joseon (1392–1910), there was Goryeo (918–1392). The transition from Goryeo to Joseon is an incredibly complex story—one that could easily fill an entire book. (In fact, many books on this topic exist in Korean.)
To put it simply, by its final years, Goryeo was in crisis. Powerful landowners controlled vast agricultural estates, evaded taxes, and recruited peasants into their private armies. This corruption drained government resources, making effective governance nearly impossible. Public life suffered, ordinary citizens faced increasing hardship, and the nation teetered on the brink of collapse.
Jeong Do-jeon and the Justification of Revolution
Witnessing this societal breakdown, the scholar-official Jeong Do-jeon (정도전) concluded that Goryeo had lost its legitimacy. Drawing inspiration from the Confucian philosopher Mencius (맹자 / 孟子), who argued that rulers who lost the people’s support should be replaced, Jeong advocated for a just revolution. To him, a government’s legitimacy depended not only on its moral integrity but also on its responsiveness to public welfare.
Jeong famously articulated his revolutionary ideas:
For Jeong, true revolution required both heaven’s approval and popular support. Without these, a revolution was nothing more than a coup, lacking moral justification.
A New System: The Centralization of Power
Witnessing how local powers and aristocrats had undermined central authority in Goryeo, Jeong Do-jeon proposed a more centralized government built around a symbolic yet essential figure: the king.
- Centralized Authority
- Unlike Goryeo, where local powers and aristocrats often undermined the central government, Joseon would have a strong core.
- The King: A Symbol, Not a Tyrant
- While the king was essential for national unity, he was not meant to be an absolute ruler. Instead, governance would be handled by highly educated scholar-officials.
- Sadaebu: Governing by Merit and Virtue
- These scholar-officials, known as sadaebu (사대부), weren’t chosen by birthright or wealth. They earned their positions through rigorous examinations (more on that later!).
- The Jae-sang (Chief State Councilors)
- At the top of this bureaucratic structure was the Jae-sang, a council of high-ranking officials who acted in a prime ministerial capacity. They played critical roles in:
- Guiding the king towards just and moral decisions.
- Ensuring fairness and balance throughout the government and society.(Prime Ministers):
- At the top of this bureaucratic structure was the Jae-sang, a council of high-ranking officials who acted in a prime ministerial capacity. They played critical roles in:
Thus, Joseon established a government nominally ruled by a king but practically managed by scholar-officials committed to Confucian ideals.
Who Really Ruled Joseon? A King as Public Servant
The founders of Joseon, often called the Neo-Confucian scholar-officials, envisioned a government dedicated to serving the public good.
No Divine Right:
Joseon’s kings were not seen as godlike figures with unlimited power, unlike European monarchs. Instead, they were public officials with national responsibilities.
In fact, there were even efforts to treat the king’s wealth as public property. Jeong Do-jeon, one of the key architects of Joseon, convinced Yi Seong-gye (이성계) to establish a new dynasty, making him the first king of Joseon. However, Jeong went a step further—he proposed transferring Yi Seong-gye’s personal wealth to the national treasury to reinforce the idea that a ruler’s resources should serve the people.
Despite their close relationship, Yi Seong-gye was furious at the suggestion. Losing his entire fortune, even for the sake of public service, was too much to accept. Instead of handing everything over, his personal wealth became Naetanggum (내탕금, 內帑金)—a Royal Reserve Fund that future kings could inherit, invest, and use as needed. Over time, Naetanggum played a significant public role, becoming a source of emergency relief. When a drought struck, farmers and commoners could borrow grain from this fund at fair interest rates. Unlike loans from private landlords or moneylenders, which often came with exploitation and hidden fees, Naetanggum provided a safer and more reliable option. Thus, even the king’s personal fortune was transformed into a public resource.
This philosophy extended to how kings lived as well. The main palace, Gyeongbokgung (경복궁), was not designed as an extravagant royal residence but as a working space where the king was under constant scrutiny. Most kings disliked living there, preferring the more comfortable Changdeokgung Palace (창덕궁) instead. One notable exception was King Sejong, the creator of Hangul (the Korean alphabet), who remained at Gyeongbokgung, fully committed to the idea of the ruler as a public servant.
“Of the King, By the Scholar-Officials, For the People”
Joseon’s system can be summarized by paraphrasing Abraham Lincoln’s famous Gettysburg Address:
This perfectly captures the essence of Joseon:
- Sovereignty: Symbolically vested in the king.
- Practical Governance: Managed by educated scholar-officials.
- Ultimate Goal: Ensuring the well-being of the people.
Coming Up Next:
In the next post, we’ll delve into the process of becoming a scholar-official (Sadaebu) and why this rigorous selection shaped modern Korea’s relentless pursuit of educational excellence.
Stay tuned!
This article references the following books:
- 한국인의 탄생 (The Birth of Koreans, 2024) – 홍대선 (Hong Dae-seon) (2024)
- 한 권으로 읽는 한국철학: 인물들과 함께 떠나는 한국철학 시간여행 (A One-Volume Guide to Korean Philosophy: A Journey Through Korean Philosophical Thought with Key Figures, 2007) – 황광욱 (Hwang Gwang-wook), 정성식 (Jung Sung-sik), 임선영 (Im Sun-young)
- 한국 철학사 3권: 조선 시대 철학(상) (History of Korean Philosophy, Volume 3: Joseon Era Philosophy (Part 1), 2016) – 전호근 (Jeon Ho-geun)
